发布时间 : 星期二 文章英语专八人文-最全语言学知识点更新完毕开始阅读0b856c17f18583d0496459bd
5. Suprasegmental Features(超音段特征): syllable, stress, tone and intonation
Suprasegmental phonology: stress, tone and intonation Stress(重音)+ Length(音长)+ Pitch(音高) = intonation(语调) 1) Syllable(音节)：大于音段但小于单词的单位；单词可以分为monosyllabic word(单音节词)和polysyllabic word(多音节词)
All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda
a. Syllabic Structure(音节结构)：We can divide a syllable into two parts, the rhyme(韵基) and the onset(节首-一般为辅音). As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus(节核-元音), the consonant(s) after it is the coda(韵尾-一般为辅音). * Previous discussion has been concentrated on linear phonology(线性音位学), as initiated by Chomsky and Halle. The syllabic structure, however, is often represented by a tree diagram. Such theories are called non-linear phonology. 2) Consonant cluster(辅音群)：几个辅音组合成为单词一部分。一般作onset的辅音群不超过3辅音，作coda的不超过4辅音 3) Sonority Scale(响音阶): The sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peat at the nucleus and then falls at the coda. 4) Pitch：指某个语音单位(音段或者超音段)，因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。 5) Stress: Notional words are always stressed while structural words are not.
a. 单词重音：位置固定，可分三级——zero零重音，secondary次重音，和primary主要重音
b. 句子重音：structural(结构重音)：句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读，
contrastive(强调重音)：指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调，句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节 grammatical(语法重音)：约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音，如重读实词，轻读虚词等
三、Morphology形态学 - It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
* Word： a physically definable unit, a common facter underlying a set of forms, a grammatical unit，介于词组和语素之间 1) Lexical words(实词)：传递实际语义内容的词，包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv.
2) Functional words(虚词)：承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词，包括prep. Articles冠词，pronoun. Conj.连词等 3) open class words(开放词)：可无限容纳新成员，如名形、部分动词/副词等，大部分为实义词； closed class words: 无法或很难容纳新成员，如介代连指冠情态等
1. The Formation of Word
free morpheme ---- free root(自由词根)
morpheme bound root(粘着词根) inflectional affixes(屈折词缀): toys, walks
bound morpheme affixes derivational affixes(派生词缀)：generate - generation 1) Morpheme(词素)：The smallest unit of language that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying its meaning. a. free morpheme(自由词素)：可以独立出现、独立成词的词素。如girl，rely等
b. bound morpheme(黏着词素)：必须与其它语素一起出现的词素，词缀居多。如pre-，-al，-ment，dis-等 c. root(词根)：单词的基础，无法再分割成更小的单位。All words contain a root morpheme. d. stem(词干)：可以附加词缀的词素或词素群; 词干>词根，如education是词干，词根是educate e. affix(词缀)：An affix can be used only when added to another morpheme. prefix; suffix; infix
2. Inflection and Word Formation
1) Inflection(曲折变化): The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of affixes. table - tables 2) Word Formation: The process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. a. Compound(合成): birdseed, bodyguard, simple-minded, traffic light
b. Derivation(派生): It changes the word class of the original word. unconscious, national
3. Lexical Change: New words are created through the following processes.
1) Invention/coinage: nylon 2) Back-formation: editor-edit 3) Blending: breakfast + lunch = brunch 4) Abbreviation: advertisement-ad; omnibus-bus; influenza-flu 5) Acronym: WTO 6) Analogical creation(类推构词): work – wrought/worked 7) Borrowing: kimchi; tofu
4. Semantic Change(changes in meaning): 1) Broadening/widening 2) Narrowing 3) Meaning shift(词义转移) 5. Vocabulary Change: 1) loss of words 2) changes in the meaning of words (widening; narrowing; meaning shift) 3) addition of new words: coinage; clipped words; blending; acronyms; back-formation; functional-shift; borrowing
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四、Syntax句法学 – It studies the formation of sentences.
~ Category: It refers to a group f linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a
sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
~ Syntactic category(句法范畴): 能在句子中起相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。
句法范畴不同于词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句法范畴。
1. Traditional Approach(传统学派): A sentence is a sequence of words. Hence, it involves lots of study of words. 1) Number: a category of the noun and pronoun, some verbs. I, we; do, does 2) Gender: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter
3) Case(格): nominative(主格), accusative(宾格), genitive(属格), dative(与格), ablative(离格), vocative(呼格); 英语只有前三种 4) Tense(时): past and present
5) Aspect(体): perfective(完成体); imperfective(未完成体)
6) Concord(一致关系): 两个或更多单词在特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致。如，主谓关系，修饰语和被修饰语。 Government(支配关系): 单词因受到相邻词语支配而必须与其保持某个范畴的一致。 She gave him a book 2. The Structural Approach(结构主义学派-Saussure)
1) Structuralism: Saussure argues that linguistic units are interrelated with each other in structure, not isolated.
Language is a system of signs, each consists of two parts: signified (concept 所指), signifier (sound image 能指). Consequently, one needs to find the value of a sign from its relations to others in order to explain individual signs. 2) Syntagmatic relations(横 组合关系)/Linear relations：即word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系。 He kicked the ball. Paradigmatic relations(纵 聚合关系)：即联想关系，在某个位置上，成分可以互相替换。 ___ is smiling.
~ 这两种关系一起决定了语言符号的身份。
3) Structure: the sequence, which a sign forms with those other signs in a syntagmatic relation. System: the class of signs, which are in paradigmatic relation. 4) Construction & Constituents(结构与成分):
Sentences do not only have a linear structure, but also a hierarchical structure(层级结构). a. Usually, sentences and phrases are referred to as constructions. The component elements of construction are called as constituents. b. A constituent which is not at the same time a constructions is a morpheme. A construction, which is not at the same time a constituent, is a sentence.
5) Immediate Constituents(直接成分): It refers to the constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction. IC Analysis (直接成分分析法): 简作通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段 The IC analysis of a sentence is easily shown with a tree diagram
6) Endocentric construction(向心结构)：有核心的结构体。Subordinate(从属-poor John)和Coordinate(平行-boys and girls) Exocentric construction(离心结构)：无核心的结构体，任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。on the shelf 3. The Generative Approach(生成学派)
1) Transformational Generative Grammar(转换生成语法-Chomsky 1957)：Any language has two levels of structures
所有语言形式都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来。其主要内容是短语结构规则和转换规则。
a. Deep Structure：抽象的句法结构，位于语法生成模式最深层，句子各部分间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来 Surface Structure：通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果，是说话人实际说出的句子。 b. Phrase: Phrase = head (中心语) + specifier (标志语) + complement (补足语)
Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category aournd which the phrase is built. NP(名词短语); VP(动词短语); AP(形容词短语); PP(介词短语) ~ Phrase structure rule: A special grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. 4. The Functional Approach(功能学派)
1) Systematic-functional Grammar(系统功能语法-Halliday)
主要关注语言和社会之间的关系，认为语言是种做事的方式，研究语言与环境的关系，重视对个别语言及个别变体的描写。
a. The systemic part: Language elements can form into system. The items are in choice relation with each other b. The functional part: Language is a social phenomenon. Halliday relates functions of languages to its structures.
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2) Theme(主位): It is known in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds.
Rheme(述位): It is what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance. 3) Communicative Dymanmism(交际动力 - J. Firbas 1964)：用CD表示句子成分对交际发展所起作用
Firbas认为，主位是由句子中交际动力最小的成分构成的，不一定是传达已知信息或能从上下文、情境中获得的信息。 4) Ideational Function(概念功能)：Language serves for the expression of content, and the speaker’s real experience.
Interpersonal Function: Language serves to establish and maintain social relations. It constructs social relations.
Textual Function(文本功能)：Language has to provide for making links with itself. It creates the relevance to context.
五、Semantics语义学 – It studies the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. 1. 各派观点
1) Contextualism(语境主义)：J.R. Firth(英国语言学家) – We shall know a word by the company it keeps.
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, and context-elements closely linked with language behavior. It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two contexts: the situational context & the linguistic context.
2) Behaviorism(Bloomfield)：It attempts to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker
utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” It links with psychological interest.
3) The Conceptualist View(概念主义观点)：Semantic triangle - Ogden and Richards
Following Saussure’s “Sign Theory”, they have succeeded in revealing that there is no direct relation between the word and its object. In the triangle, the “symbol” or the form refers to the linguistic elements (words), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and “thought” or “reference” refers to the concept or notion. Thus, the symbol signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word, in the mind of the speaker of a language.
2. 语义学的七种意义(Geoffrey Leech):
1) Conceptual Meaning(概念意义)：中心概念，表示单词和其所指代的事物之间的关系，类似于“Reference” 2) Associative Meaning(联想意义)： ●Connotative(内涵意义)：指在交际中语言所传达出来的意思
●Social(社会意义)：使用语言时传达出的有关社会场合的信息
●Affective(情感意义)：指说话人或作者表达出来的情感或态度 ●Reflected(反映意义)：通过联想某个表达法的别种意义而产生出来的意义 ●Collocative(搭配意义)：通过联想经常同现于一个语境中的单词而产生的意义
3) Thematic Meanings(主题意义)：通过信息的组织方式而传达的意义
3. Lexical Meaning
1) Sense: 涵义是关于语言形式的内部意义，是语言形式所有特点的集合，是抽象和非语境化的。
Reference: 所指，指一种语言形式在现实世界中所指代的事物，主要研究语言元素和非语言经验世界间的关系。 2) Sense Relations(语义关系) ~ Polysemy(一词多义): present; tear
~ Antonymy(反义)：Gradable- good/bad; Complementary-alive/dead; Converse-buy/sell ~ Synonymy(同义)：native words & borrowed/loan words a. Dialectal synonyms: autumn-fall b. Stylistic synonyms: kid-child
c. Emotive/evaluative meaning(感情/评估意义): collaborator – accomplice d. Collocational synonyms(固定搭配): accuse...of – charge...with e. Semantically different synonyms: amaze – astound - surprise ~ Homonymy(同音同形异义):
Homophones(同音异义) – rain/reign; Homographs(同形异义) – tear(v. n.); Complete homonyms: fast(adj. v.) ~ Hyponymy(上下义): Superordinate(上义词) & Hyponym(下义词) animals - dog, cat 4. Analysis of meaning(语义分析)
1) componential analysis(成分分析 - structural semanticists):
It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of meaning components, called semantic features.
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2) predication analysis(述谓分析 - G. Leech):
The meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it.
~ 根据述谓结构中中项ARGUMENT的多少，我们可分为Two-place predicate(二向谓词): 包含两个中项;
One-place predicate(一向谓词): 包含一个中项; No-place predicate(零向谓词): 不含中项
5. Sense Relations Between Sentences(语句之间的涵义关系)
1) X is synonymous with Y. (同义)：The boy killed the dog./ The dog was killed by the boy. 2) X is inconsistent with Y. (矛盾): John is married. / John is a bachelor.
3) X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X. 衍推): John married a blond heiress. / John married a blond. 4) X presupposes Y. (预设，Y是X的前提条件prerequisite)：His bike needs repairing. / He has a bike. 5) X is a contradiction. (自相矛盾句): My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. 6) X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常句): The table has bad intentions.
六、Pragmatics语用学 –如何通过语境来理解和使用语言; the study of language in actual use
1. 定义：It studies natural language understanding, and specifically how context influences the interpretation of meanings.
Meaning in pragmatics is different from the meaning we studied in semantics mostly in the sense that pragmatic meaning depends more on context.
2. Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论 - John Langshaw Austin): things can be done with words 1) Performative and Constative(行事话语与叙事话语)：two types of sentences
a. If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action, the sentences are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.
b. Constatives are descriptions of what the speaker is doing at the moment of speaking. 2) A Theory of the Illocutionary Act(行事行为理论)
●Locutionary Act(言内行为)：指 “说话”行为本身，表示的字面意思。
●Illocutionary Act(言外行为)：指说话时，因为言语本身的一些习惯力量而随之产生了其他的一些行为，如允诺、警告等。 ●Indirect Speech Act(言后行为)：指话语在听者身上产生的效果。
3. The Theory of Conversational Implicature(会话含义理论-Herbert Paul Grice)：
1) The Cooperative Principles: 说话人和听话人之间为了达到某个共同交际目标形成的一种默契和原则
●Quantity Maxim(数量准则): Make it as informative as is required, but not too much.
●Quality Maxim(质量准则)：Make it true; Do not say what you believe to be false or lack adequate evidence. ●Relation Maxim(关联准则)：Be relevant
●Manner Maxim(方式准则)：Be perspicuous – 避免晦涩、歧义；要简练、有序 2) Characteristics of Implicature(含义的特征):
a. Calculability(可推导性): The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicature and hearers are able to
understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable.
b. Cancellability(可取消性): A conversational implicature may be cancelled.
c. Non-Conventionality(非规约性): Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional words meaning . d. Non-Detachability(不可分离性): It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what
is said, not to the linguistic form.
*Conversational Implicature(会话含义)：当言者公然不执行某原则，且让听者知道他在违反，以让对方体会到言外之意，即会话含义。 4. Post-Gricean Developments后格莱斯时期
1) Relevance Theory (Dan Sperber & Deirdre Wilson):
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. Communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something, and this act is called as ostensive act. 2) The Q- and R-principles(数量原则和关系原则-Laurence Horn):
a. the Q-principle(hearer-based)：make your contribution sufficient; say as much as you can b. the R-principle(speaker-based): make your contribution necessary; say no more than you must
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