发布时间 : 星期六 文章《公共管理专业英语》部分课文翻译更新完毕开始阅读0ece9701336c1eb91b375d05
民同样面临健康的风险，伤病会同时消耗直接成本和机会成本。在南亚，所有医疗健康花费中的近80%来自个人财产，这使得必须的卫生保健对许多家庭产生了贫困效应。
Enhancing security for poor people means reducing their vulnerability to ill health and economic shocks. Market-based insurance and pension schemes can reduce risk significantly, but they play only a minor role in many developing countries. In 16 developing countries public spending on pensions amounted to less than 0.5 percent of GDP in 1990s. to increase the security of poor people, national poverty reduction strategies must support their immediate consumption needs and protect their assets by ensuring access to basic services. Literacy training and health and nutrition services are often the most needed and most valued by poor people. Yet government spending in these areas remains low in many countries. In 2000 low-income countries’ public spending on health averaged 1 percent of GDP, compared with 6 percent for high-income countries.提高贫困人口的保障水平意味着降低他们面临疾病和经济危机的脆弱性。基于市场的保险和养老机制可以显著的降低贫困人口的风险，但是它在许多发展中国家仅起很小的作用。20世纪90年代，在16个发展中国家，公共支出中的养老金部分的比例低于国内生产总值的0.5％。为了提高贫困人口的保障水平，国家的扶贫策略必须通过确保他们享有公共服务的权利，来支持他们的即期消费需求和保护他们的资产。贫困人民最需要，最重视的是知识培训和健康营养服务。然而，在许多国家，政府对这些领域的投入一直很低。2000年，相对于高收入国家的6%的比率，低收入国家在保健方面的公共支出，平均只达国内生产总值的1％。
3. Building Human Capital Through Education and Health Services通过
教育和卫生服务构建人力资本
Poor people lack the means to escape poverty. Increasing the productivity of their labor through investments in education and health is often the most effective way to improve their welfare.贫困人民缺乏手段来摆脱贫穷。通过对教育和健康的投资来提高他们的劳动生产力通常是改善他们的福利的最有效的途径。
Investments in education widen horizons, making it easier for people to take advantage of new opportunities and helping them to participate in social an economic life. But despite increased spending on education, particularly primary education, enrollment rates remain low in many countries. In Sub-Saharan Africa primary enrollment rates declined between 1980 and 2000. Low primary enrollment typically reflects low participation by poor people. But in many poor countries it also has a gender dimension, reflecting traditional biases against girls “education and reliance girls” contributions to the household. One consequence of this imbalance: higher rates of illiteracy among women.对教育的投资能拓宽视野，使人们更容易利用新机会以及帮助他们参加社会和经济生活。但尽管增加了教育支出, 在许多国家，特别是初等教育的入学率依
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然很低。在撒哈拉以南的非洲地区，初等教育的入学率在1980 年和2000 年之间下降了。初等教育的低入学率典型地反映了贫困人民的低参与率。但在许多贫困国家它还有一个性别层面的原因, 反映出对女孩的传统偏见。“教育和自立不属于女孩，女孩应为家庭服务。”这种不平衡状态的后果之一: 在妇女中的高文盲率。
The public sector is the main provider of health care in developing countries-training medical personnel, investing in hospitals, and directly providing medical care. To reduce inequities, many countries have emphasized primary health care, including immunization, provision of sanitation, access to safe drinking water, and safe motherhood initiatives. Even so, much remains to be done. Child malnutrition remains a burden, with 22 countries having rates of more than 30 percent in 1990s. an estimated 40 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, an unprecedented public health challenge. And the reemergence of old diseases such as tuberculosis in Europe and Central Asia and parts of South and East Asia has put severe strains on health budgets. A high prevalence of disease in a country goes hand-in-hand with poor economic performance.在发展中国家，公共部门是医疗保健的主要提供者－－训练医疗人员, 对医院投资, 和直接提供卫生保健。为减少不公平, 许多国家着重于初级卫生保健, 包括免疫法、卫生设施的提供，安全饮用水的供应, 和安全孕产倡议。即使如此, 仍有许多工作要做。儿童营养不良依然是负担, 在20世纪90年代，22 个国家的此比例超过百分之30。估计4千万人民感染HIV/AIDS, 这对公共卫生是一个史无前例的挑战。旧疾病的再度出现，例如在欧洲，中亚和部份南亚和东亚的肺结核，对卫生预算施加了沉重的压力。疾病在一个国家的大流行通常伴随着经济的不振。
There are many ways to measure poverty and its effects on people’s lives. The indicators reported here suffer from many shortcomings, noted in About the data of each table. But taken together, the indicators provide a broad picture of how well different economies are doing in reducing poverty, enhancing human security, and building human capital-and how large a task still faces many developing countries.可以用许多方式来衡量贫穷以及它对人民生活的影响。通过每张表格的数据可以看出，这里所报道的指标都有许多缺陷。但放在一起, 这些指标在为我们提供了一个总的情况：即，不同的经济体制在减少贫穷，提高人民生活保障，构建人力资本方面的表现如何。同时，我们也可以从中看出许多发展中国家面临的任务仍然艰巨。
Enhancing security 提高保障水平 Impoverishing effect 贫困效应 Human capital 人力资本
Personnel Policies人事政策
All agencies have personnel policies, even those that may insist they have no personnel manual. The polices may differ in terms of th
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e degree of specificity and formality with which they are expressed, but they are present in the expectations that the governing board and director have of the employees and that the employees have of each other. In some agencies, they may be verbal descriptions of expected behavior, in others they may be a series of memos describing expectations, and in still other agencies they may be codified into a formal manual given to all new employees. Agency variations with regard to degree and specificity of formality are the result of several factors, including whether employees are a part of civil service or union system, the size of the agency, the age of the agency, and whether the agency’s personnel practices have even been the subject of a grievance or lawsuit.所有机构，即便是那些没有人事手册的机构，都有人事政策。这些政策可能会在表达的具体程度和形式上有所不同，但它们都体现了董事会对雇员，以及员工之间的期望。在一些机构，它们可能是口头说明的所预期行为，在另外的机构，它们可能是一系列的阐述期望的备忘录，它们还可能会被整理成正式的手册给所有新员工。有若干因素导致了机构的政策在程度和具体形式上的差异，包括员工是否属于行政或联邦制度，机构的规模，机构的创办时间，以及该机构的人事政策是否甚至一直受到申诉或诉讼。
As with written job descriptions, it is our firm belief that all agencies are well served by having written personnel policies. Written polices clarify expectations and both serve to avoid personnel and make it easier to correct problems, when they occur. They are also an essential element in creating the sense among employees that their treatment is fair because they know that rules apply to them and to other employees.关于书面的工作说明，我们坚定地相信，所有的机构都会从书面的人事政策中受益。书面政策阐明了机构的期望，而且能够有助于避免人员犯错，也更易于纠正问题。为了让员工感到他们的待遇是公平的，必须有书面政策。因为这样他们会知道本规则不仅适用于自己而且也适用于其它员工。
Personnel policies are not statics, and even in agencies with well-established and complete policies they need to be reviewed periodically. Changes are most often identified in response to problems or issues. Several employees, for example, may develop an interest in job sharing because of their family circumstances. A policy may need to be developed to describe under what circumstances is job sharing possible, what categories of positions are eligible for sharing, and how employees apply for sharing. In other instances, there may be concern that too much time is being spent by employees playing computer games or surfing the Internet, and policies may need to be developed that limit the use of agency resources for these purposes.人事政策不是一成不变的，即使是在建立了良好的和完善的政策的机构，也有必要对政策定期进行评估。政策的变化通常是为了解决问题或争论。举例来说，几位员工可能因为家庭情况而喜欢分担工作。这时就需要修订一项政策，来阐明在什么情况下可以分担工作，哪些类别的职位可以分担，并说明如何雇员申请分担。再比如，机构
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可能会担心员工花太多的时间玩电脑游戏或上网冲浪。那么就需要修订政策，来限制员工因这些目的而利用机构的资源。
Changes also occur in response to changes in applicable laws. Several years ago, a policy dealing with sexual harassment was probably the exception rather than the rule. Today, given U. S. Supreme Court ruling about employer liability when such harassment occurs, all agencies are well severed by a written policy in this area.同时，政策的变化也是为了适应适用法律的变化。几年前，一个处理性骚扰的政策，可能是个个例，而非规定。今天，鉴于美国最高法院做出的裁决，所有机构的雇主都有义务对于这种骚扰制定相关政策。
Agencies with policies should also review them periodically against a suggested list of what should be included in a policy manual. One such list, adapted from Pecora’s (1995) work, is found in Appendix 3. additional content on behavioral expectations was added because it is often such expectations that create minor sources of tension with the agency. Creating Your Employee Handbook(Bernstein, 1999) and comparable publications can also help in developing a personnel manual.机构的政策也应该参照一份建议材料来确定机构的政策手册中应该包括哪些内容。在附录3可以找到这样一份材料，它改编自pecora的（ 1995年）的著作。对行为期望的政策补充了一些内容，因为这些期望往往会引起机构内的紧张气氛。编订你自己的雇员手册（伯恩斯坦， 1999年），类似的出版物也有助于修订人事手册。
Agencies that do not have many written policies or have not codified their existing policies may believe that the task of developing such a codification is overwhelming when reviewing a list of possible personnel manual content. Such agencies are likely to be small or new. Unless the agency is able to devote a portion of someone’s time to developing a policy manual of contract with someone to develop one, the task may indeed be overwhelming. However, the director can make use of a range of supports to make the task less overwhelming. For example, she can ask colleagues from other more established agencies if it would be possible to review and adopt portions of their personnel manual when such adoptions fit her agency. She can ask staff and board members to each other be responsible for writing a section of manual. Or she can see manual development as a task that stretches over a year or two, dealing with limited pats of the manual at any given time. If this approach is taken, it will be important for the director to be disciplined and establish a timeframe for completion and hold to that timeframe.在参照了一系列的人事手册的内容后，一些没有许多书面政策或没有编篡自己的现行政策的机构，可能会认为这项编篡任务是无法承受的。这类机构很可能是小型的或新建立的。除非该机构能够先花时间制定一个关于合同的政策手册，以便和别人签合同去编篡人事手册，否则，这项任务的确是很艰巨的。然而，负责人可以利用一系列的支持手段，使这项任稍微轻松些。例如，
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