发布时间 : 星期三 文章欧洲文化课后问答题更新完毕开始阅读21bce6ba83c4bb4cf7ecd199
②In optics, he discovered that while light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum; ③Most important of all, he discovered the law of the universal gravitation. According to this law, every body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. To put it simply, the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation. The law of gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science and had not been questioned until Einstein discovered the law of relativity;
④Newton’s influence was not limited to the physical universe. His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought. Thus he was generally considered to be the greatest scientist that ever lived.
4. Why do we say that Bacon was a founder of modern philosophy? Bacon was regarded as the founder of modern philosophy:
The whole basis of his philosophy was practical. He held the philosophy should be kept separate from theology instead of being blended with it as the Scholasticism;
Bacon maintained that it was crucial to supply mankind with a scientific method of inquiry into nature. He rejected the traditional deductive method and founded modern inductive method;
To expert any great advancement in science, bacon held that we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all prejudices, all the assumption, to sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.
5. What were the major differences between Locke’s concept of “social contract” and Hobbes’s?
①Hobbes’s concept of ―social contract‖ is as follows. To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contrast, by which they submit to the sovereign. In return, men attain peace and security. In his theory, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only by the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided. And the sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract. The subjects of the sovereign cannot either change the form of the government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.
②Locke tried to show the rational foundation of political society and government. He
emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail. For him, absolute monarchy was contrary to the original social contract and dangerous to liberty. For him, the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.
③Although both Hobbes and Locke used the term ―social contract‖, they differ fundamentally. First, Hobbes argued that men enter into a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued that men are equal and that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If he fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to overthrow him.
6. How did Locke justify rebellion against government?
Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If the ruler substitutes his arbitrary will for the laws and shows no regard for people’s wills, in a word, if he violates the social contract, the government is effectively dissolved. When the government is dissolved. Rebellion is justified. As to who is to judge when circumstance render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, ―The people shall be the judge.‖ 7. What is the theme of John Milton’s Paradise Lost?
The theme of Milton’s Paradise Lost is the fall of men: man’s disobedience and the loss thereupon of the Paradise, with its prime cause-Satan. In this epic poem, the evil, rebellious, courageous, heroic and tragic Satan is the most successfully portrayed character and is different from the traditional image.
8. What is Descartes’ method of Cartesian doubt? What is its significance?
Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was an indubitable truth. And he expressed this truth in this famous motto: ―I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am.‖ This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy. According to Descartes, ―I think therefore I am‖ makes mind more certain than matter. He believed that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of mind. So he concluded that knowledge of things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and that knowledge of things must be by the mind. As to the senses, he believed that they are not dependable.
9. Who was the most well—known writer in the 17th century French literature? Say
something about one of his major works.
Corneille, Racine and Moliere were the most well-known writers in the 17th century French literature. Corneille’s masterpiece was Le Cid which shows the intense conflict between love and duty. One of the representative tragedies of Racine is Phaedra which tells the story of the overwhelming passion of Phaedra for her stepson. The theme of the play is the conflict of passion with reason. Tartuffe is one of Moliere’s best known comedies. In this play, he exposes religious hypocrisy.
10. What are some of the characteristics of Baroque art?
Baroque art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherland in the North. It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color. The representatives were Bernini, Michelangelo Caravaggio, Borromini, Rubens, Velazquez, Rembrandt, etc.
In architecture, it referred to architecture of the period with its proliferation of ornament. Later the term ―baroque‖ was applied to paintings and music. In music, the new art represented a transformation of its elements into a swelling, emotional style.
Division six: the Age of Enlightenment
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1. When and where did the Enlightenment take place?
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread support among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century.
2. Why the Enlightenment is also called “the Age of Reason”?
The Enlightenment characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State. Therefore it is called the Age of Reason.
3. What were Locke and Newton’s influence on the Enlightenment?
Locke and Newton were the two most important forerunners of the Enlightenment in the 17th century. Locke’s materialist theory attributed the origin if ideas to sensations inscribed on the blank slate of mind. Newton’s theory of gravitation further demonstrated to the world that the universe was governed by laws that could be understood by human mind. Their theories fostered the belief in natural law and universal order and established confidence in human reason.
4. Who were the philosophes?
The philosophes refer to these well — known French philosophers in he 18th century: Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. They popularized and propagated new ideas for the general reading public and were the major force of the Enlightenment. 5. Who wrote The Spirit of the laws? Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the laws. 6. What kind of book is Candide?
Candide is the most famous of Voltaire’s novel. It is a satire on the previous adventure novels of the age, an attack upon the claims of unlimited optimism. It is the story of a na?ve and innocent young man who becomes gradually disillusioned. 7. In which book did Montesquieu discuss the separation of powers?
Both Montesquieu and Rousseau touched upon the separation of powers, Montesquieu in his The Spirit of the Laws and Rousseau in his The Social Contract. 8. What is Diderot famous for?
Diderot is the best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie.
9. Was Pope a famous prose writer? Which movement of art and literature was he known to represent?
Pope was not a famous prose writer but a great poet. He represented the rationalistic neoclassical movement in literature and has often been called the spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason,
10. Who is the author of Gulliver’s Travels? What is the story about?
Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver’s Travels. It is a social and political prose satire, in the form of a book of travels. It tells the four voyages by Gulliver, an honest, blunt English ship’s captain, to Lilliput (a land of Pygmies), Brobdingnag (a land of giants), the flying island of Laputa, and finally to the land of the Houyhnhnms , a race of supremely intelligent horses, who are served by the Yahoos, reasonless and conscienceless beasts in the shape of men.
11. Which book(s) was Defoe chiefly known for? Defoe was chiefly known for his novel Robinson Crusoe.
12. What was Fielding’s major contribution to English literature? Name one of his novels. Henry Fielding’s major contribution to English literature was his creation and development of modern novel—a new art from which is realistic, comic, unsentimental, showing contemporary life and manners. He was also the first person to approach the genre with a fully worked-out theory of the novel l. The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling is one of his